Lichen determination keys - neotropical genera -

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This list contains information on ecology and distribution, and a selection of literature, which may be of help for species determination.

Other recommended publications:
for common species of macrolichens, Swinscow & Krog (1988, see introduction);
for foliicolous lichens: Lücking, R. 1992: Foliicolous lichens - A contribution to the knowledge of the lichen flora of Costa Rica, Central America. - Beih. Nova Hedwigia 104: 1-179; website with checklist, good photographs, worldwide key expected soon.
for epilithic crustose species from high elevations, treatments for European lichens, like Purvis et al. (1993, see Introduction).
for keys to the lichen species treated in Vainio, Lichens du Brésil (1898), see pp. 113-188 in M. P. Marcelli & T. Ahti (eds.), Recollecting Edvard August Vainio. Sao Paulo 1998, 188 pp.
Further information on many genera can be found in Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi (8th edition, 1995, by D.L. Hawksworth, P.M. Kirk, B.C. Sutton & D.N. Pegler).
For further literature, incl. general determination keys, see the literature page.

The indication of distribution and ecology is likely to be very incomplete. It is based on literature and available herbarium specimens, and reflects the poor knowledge of most tropical lichens.

• Acantholichen - Monospecific genus, species A. pannarioides P. M. Jørg., on organic debris in humid montane forest, Costa Rica-Ecuador. Litt.: Jørgensen, P. M. 1998. Acantholichen pannarioides, a new basidiolichen from South America. Bryologist 101 (3): 444-447. Picture.
• Acanthothecis - (syn. Acanthotheciopsis, Acanthothecium) Widespread on bark, but not common. Litt.: E.A. Vainio 1890, Lichens du Brésil, Acta Soc. F. et Fl. Fennica 7: 93; B. Staiger & K. Kalb 1999, Acanthothecis and other graphidioid lichens with warty periphysoids or paraphysis-tips. Mycotaxon 73: 69-134; revised key in: Staiger, B. 2002. Die Flechtenfamilie Graphidaceae. Studien in Richtung einer natürlicheren Gliederung. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 85: 1-526. Pictures.
• Acarospora - Widespread on rock. Litt.: Magnusson, A.H. 1929 - A monograph of the genus Acarospora. Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsak. Handl. S. III, 7(4), 400 pp. Pictures.
• Acroscyphus - 1 species, A. sphaerophoroides Léveillé, known from two specimens from Mexico and Peru above 3000 m. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Actinoplaca - Two species, foliicolous, widespread.
• Agonimia - A. papillata (O. Eriksson) Diederich & Aptroot, with thin, grey squamules, probably widespread in cultivated lowlands; other species present? Litt. (as Flakea): Eriksson, O.E. 1992. Psoroglaena cubensis and Flakea papillata gen. et sp. nov., two corticolous lichens with a pantropical distribution. Systema Ascomycetum 11: 11-27. Pictures.
• Ainoa - Probably two species, mainly on stony soil of road banks in perhumid conditions, above c. 3000 m, formely included in Trapelia: Ainoa geochroa (Körb.) Lumbsch & I.Schmitt, Ainoa mooreana (Carroll) Lumbsch & I.Schmitt. Litt. Hertel, H 1969: Die Flechtengattung Trapelia Choisy. - Herzogia 1: 111-130 (sub Trapelia geochroa and T. torellii). Litt.: Marcano et al. 1994, Ernstia 4: 89-100. Picture.
• Alectoria - Single species, A. ochroleuca (Hoffm.) Massal., above c. 3500 m on mossy rocks. Litt.: Marcano et al. 1994, Ernstia 4: 89-100.
• Allophoron - 1 species, A. farinosum Nádvorník, known only from the type from Colombia 2600 m. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• (Amandinea - Included in Buellia, see Marbach 2000). Pictures.
• (Ampliotrema - Included in Ocellularia; the genus is proposed by Kalb (Biblioth. Lichenol. 88: 301, 2004) for the group of species with inspersed hymenium and carbonized excipulum and without columella). Picture.
• Amazonomyces - Two species, A. sprucei (R. Sant.) Lücking, Sérus. & Thor and A. farkasiae (Lücking) Lücking, Sérus. & Thor. Litt.: Lücking et al. in Lichenologist 30: 134. Picture
• Anisomeridium - Various epiphytic species, widespread. Litt.: Harris 1995, More Florida lichens, where a key is presented. See also under Megalotremis. Pictures.
• Anomomorpha - see note under Graphis. Pictures.
• Anthracothecium - Widespread epiphyte. Pictures.
• Anzia - c. 8 species, epiphytic at c. 2000-3500 m. Key: Yoshimura, 1995, pp. 377-387 in Daniëls, Schulz & Peine (Eds.), Flechten Follmann. Pictures.
• Architrypethelium - Few species, lowland epiphytes. Litt.: Aptroot 1991, Bibl. Lichenol. 44. Picture.
• Arthonia - Widespread, many species. Robert Lücking offers an internet key to the foliicolous species worldwide. Pictures.
• Arthopyrenia - Probably widespread. Pictures.
• Arthothelium - Widespread, many species. Pictures.
• Arthrorhaphis - Probably 2 species, on mossy soil above c. 3500 m. Litt.: Obermayer 1994, Nova Hedwigia 58: 275-333. Pictures.
• Aspicilia - Widespread epilithic lichens, mainly at higher elevations. Pictures.
• Aspidothelium - Included by some authors in Thelenella. Key in Sérusiaux, E & Lücking, R. 2001: Aspidothelium gemmiferum sp. nov. from Papua New Guinea (lichenized Ascomycetes) - Mycotaxon 79: 43-49; Santesson, R., 1952, Foliicolous Lichens I, (Symb. Bot. Upsal. XII:1), p. 282; additional species described by Lücking, R., 1999, Willdenowia 29: 301-305. Picture
• Asterothyrium - Widespread foliicolous lichens. Key to all (ca. 30) foliicolous Asterothyriaceae in Costa Rica: Lücking 1999, Cryptogamie Mycologie 20(3): 193-224. Picture.
• Astrothelium - Widespread, corticolous, mainly in lowland forest. Litt.: Harris, R.C. 1986("1984") - The family Trypetheliaceae (Loculoascomycetes: lichenized Melanommatales) in Amazonian Brazil. Suppl. Acta Amazonica 14(1-2): 55-80. Picture.
• Aulaxina - Widespread foliicolous lichens, occasionally corticolous. Litt.: Kalb, K. & Vezda, A. 1988. Biblioth. Lichenol. 29. Picture.
• Auriculora Kalb - Single, widespread, corticolous species: A. byssomorpha (Nyl.) Kalb. Descr.: Henssen & Titze 1990, Bot. Acta 103: 131-139. Picture
• Bacidia - Widespread and common, many species, mainly on bark.
• Bacidina (syn. Woessia) - Widespread and common, many species, on bark and especially on leaves.
• Bacidiopsora Kalb - Single, common, epiphytic species of mountain forests: Bacidiopsora squamulosula (Nyl.) Kalb. Picture.
• Bactrospora - Common corticolous forest lichens. Key: Egea & Torrente 1993, Lichenologist 25: 211-255.
• Badimia - Common foliicolous lowland forest lichens. Litt.: Lücking, Lumbsch & Elix 1994: Chemistry, anatomy and morphology of foliicolous species of Fellhanera and Badimia (Lichenized Ascomycotina, Lecanorales). Bot. Acta 107: 393-401. Picture.
• Baeomyces - Probably a single species, Baeomyces rufus (Huds.) Rebent., on soil above 3000 m.
• Bahianora - Known from a single, muscicolous collection from Brazil. Litt.: Kalb, K. 1984: Lichenes Neotropici Fasz. VIII, No. 302. The ascospores are predominantly simple, thick-walled; the asci belong to the Lecanora-type s.l. Picture.
• Bapalmuia - A widespread, foliicolous or corticolous, lowland genus, until recently included in Bacidia, partly in Lopadium or Lopacidia. Commonest species: B. palmularis (Müll. Arg.) Sérus. Litt.: Sérusiaux, E. 1993: New taxa of foliicolous lichens from Western Europe and Macaronesia. Nordic Journ. Bot. 13: 447-461; (under Bacidia) Lücking, R. 1992: Foliicolous lichens - A contribution to the knowledge of the lichen flora of Costa Rica, Central America. - Beih. Nova Hedwigia 104: 1-179. K. Kalb, R. Lücking & E. Sérusiaux, 2000, Studies in Bacidia sensu lato (lichenized Ascomycetes: Lecanorales) I. The genus Bapalmuia. Mycotaxon 75: 281-309.
• (Baculifera - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Barubria - Lowland foliicolous genus, only species Barubria fuscorubra (Vezda) Vezda. Litt.: Vezda, A. 1986: Neue Gattungen der Familie Lecideaceae s. lat. (Lichenes). Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 21: 199-219.
• Bathelium - Corticolous lowland lichens. Litt.: Harris 1995, More Florida Lichens. Picture.
• Biatora s.l. - Widespread and common, especially in lowland forest, mainly on bark. Taxonomical position of tropical representatives uncertain.
• Brigantiaea - Widespread epiphyte of open vegetation; single common species in Neotropics: Brigantiaea leucoxantha (Spreng.) R. Sant. & Haf. Key: Hafellner 1997, Symb. Bot. Upsal. 32(1):35-74. Picture.
• Bryophagus - Rarely collected. B. similis (Vezda) Kalb. Descr. Vezda 1966, Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 1: 154-175, sub Gloeolecta. Picture.
• Bryoria - Genus probably reaches southern boundary in Colombia with an unidentified species on mossy rock; Bryoria furcellata (Fr.) Brodo & Hawksw. is known from Colombia northward, epiphytic. Key: Brodo & Hawksworth 1977, Alectoria and allied genera in N. America, Opera Bot. 42, 164 pp. Picture of Bryoria: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Bfremontii.html.
• Buellia - Many species, widespread, on various substrates. Litt.: B, Marbach, 2000. Corticole und lignicole Arten der Flechtengattung Buellia sensu lato in den Substropen und Tropen. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 74. Internet version of the key. Picture of Buellia: http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/cpsu/pictures/3.htm.
• (Bulbotricella - Included in Bulbothrix)
• Bulbothrix - Widespread, mainly corticolous and in the lowlands. Litt.: Hale, M.E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Bulbothrix Hale (Parmeliaceae). Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 32: 1-29, f. 1-7. Marcelli 1993, Acta bot. bras. 7: 25-70. Picture
• Bullatina - Single, foliicolous species Bullatina aspidota (Vain.) Vezda & Poelt. Picture.
• Bunodophoron - Single species, Bunodophoron melanocarpus (Sw.) Wedin (syn. Sphaerophorus melanocarpus, incl. S. formosanus), in montane forest, mainly on mossy trunks.
• Byssolecania - Widespread foliicolous species, mainly in lowland forest. Key to 5 Brazilian species in Lücking & Kalb (2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61). Picture.
• Byssoloma - Widespread, mainly foliicolous. Litt.: Kalb, K. & A. Vezda 1990 - Die Flechtengattung Byssoloma in der Neotropis (eine taxonomisch-phytogeographische Studie). Nova Hedwigia 51(3-4): 435-451.
• Calenia - Widespread, foliicolous. Picture.
• Caleniopsis - Widespread, foliicolous; single species Caleniopsis laevigata (Müll.Arg.) Vezda & Poelt Litt. (under Calenia): Santesson 1952, Foliicolous Lichens, Symb. Bot. Upsal. 12: 1-590. Picture.
• Calicium - 10 species, mainly on wood in mountains. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Calopadia - Widespread, often foliicolous. Litt. (corticolous species): Kalb & Vezda, 1987, Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 22: 287-312. Picture
• Caloplaca - Widespread and with many species, especially in dryer areas. Litt.: Hafellner, J. & J. Poelt 1979 - Die Arten der Gattung Caloplaca mit pluriloculären Sporen (Meroplacis, Triophthalmidium, Xanthocarpia). J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 46: 1-41. Wetmore, C. M. 1994 - The lichen genus Caloplaca in North and Central America with brown or black apothecia. Mycologia 86(6): 813-838. Partial internet keys, mainly for northern America http://www.tc.umn.edu/~wetmore/Calop.html. Picture of Caloplaca: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Cinconspecta.html. Other picture
• Calotrichopsis - On calcareous rock or soil in Paraguay and Brazil.
• Campylothelium - Probably widespread, corticolous. Litt.: Harris ["1984"]1986, Suppl. Acta Amazonica 14: 55-80.
• Candelaria - Widespread in cultivated areas. Litt.: Poelt, J. 1974: Zur Kenntnis der Flechtenfamilie Candelariaceae. Phyton 16: 189-210.
• Candelariella - Probably widespread.
• Candelina - Two species on rock N of the equator. Litt.: Poelt, J. 1974: Zur Kenntnis der Flechtenfamilie Candelariaceae. Phyton 16: 189-210. Picture.
• Canomaculina - 3 species, widespread epiphytes, often in cultivated areas. Litt. (p.p. under Parmelina): Hale 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Parmelina Lynge (Parmeliaceae). Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 33: 1-60. Recently expanded with the genus Rimeliella: Elix, J. A. 1997. The lichen genera Canomaculina and Rimeliella (Ascomycotina, Parmeliaceae). Mycotaxon 65: 475-479. internet key.
• Canoparmelia - Several species, especially in lower montane zone. Litt. (under Pseudoparmelia): Hale 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Pseudoparmelia Lynge (Parmeliaceae). Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 31: 1-62. List of new combinations: Elix, Johnston & Verdon, 1986, Mycotaxon 27: 271-282.
• Carassea - On seepage rock in SE Brazil. Monospecific genus, resembling Cladonia sect. unciales, but with different chemistry and with ca. 0.1 mm long anastomoses between branches. Litt.: Ahti 2000, Cladoniaceae, Flora Neotropica 78, as Cladonia; S. Stenroos et al. 2002, Mycological Progress 1: 267-282.
• Carbacanthographis - see note under Graphis; key in Staiger, B. 2002. Die Flechtenfamilie Graphidaceae. Studien in Richtung einer natürlicheren Gliederung. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 85: 1-526.
• Carbonea - On rock at high elevations. Picture.
• Catapyrenium - 13 species, mainly on soil in dry mountain areas. Litt.: Breuss, O. 1993: Catapyrenium (Verrucariaceae) species from South America. Plant Syst. Evol. 185: 17-33. In a later publication (O. Breuss, 1996. Ein verfeinertes Gliederungskonzept für Catapyrenium (lichenisierte Ascomyceten, Verrucariaceae), Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien 98N Suppl.: 35-50) the genus is split. Of the separated genera two are represented in the Neotropics: Catapyrenium (s. str.) and Placidium. In the former the upper cortex is 10-20(-30) mu thick and poorly delimited, in the latter (30-)40-60(-100) mu and clearly delimited from the algal layer.
• Catillaria s.l. - Taxonomy unclear, therefore no further information available.
• Catinaria - Widespread, corticolous.
• Celothelium - Lowland, corticolous. Litt: Aguirre-Hudson, B. 1991 - A taxonomic study of the species referred to the ascomycete genus Leptorhaphis. Bull Br. mus. nat. Hist. (Bot.) 21(2): 85-192. Picture.
• Cetraria - Epiphyte or terricolous in northern high Andes and Costa Rica; one yellowish species: C. laureri Kremp. (syn. Tuckneraria laureri (Kremp.) Randlane & Thell; two brown species. Litt. on brown species: Kärnefelt, I. 1979 - The brown fruticose species of Cetraria. Op. Bot. 46: 1-150, fig. 1-74. Picture of Cetraria islandica: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Cislandica.html.
• Cetrariastrum - 3 epiphytic species above 3000 m in northern Andes and Costa Rica. Litt.: Sipman, H.J.M. 1980 - Studies on Colombian Cryptogams X. The genus Everniastrum Hale and related taxa (Lichenes). Proceed. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetensch., ser. C, 83: 333-354. Picture.
• Cetrelia - Epiphytic in mountain forest of Mexico (elsewhere?). Litt.: Culberson, W.L. & Culberson, C.F. 1968: The lichen genera Cetrelia and Platismatia (Parmeliaceae). Contrib. US National Herb. 34: 449-558.
• Chaenotheca - 10 species on bark or wood. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Chaenothecopsis - 7 species. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69. Picture.
• Chiodecton - Widespread, on tree trunks in forest. Litt.: Thor, G. 1990 - The lichen genus Chiodecton and five allied genera. Opera Botanica 103. Picture.
• Chroodiscus - Widespread, on leaves or corticolous. Species attributable to this genus are often still found under Thelotrema. Key to 4 foliicolous species of Costa Rica: Lücking 1999, Cryptogamie Mycologie 20(3): 193-224. Picture.
• (Chrismofulvea - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Chrysothrix - C. xanthina (Vain.) Kalb, a widespread epiphyte, preferably in rather arid areas. See Kalb 2001, in Bibl. Lichenol. 78: 143-145. Picture.
• Cladia - Cladia aggregata (L.) Nyl. widespread, especially in the mountains; two rare, additional species. Litt.: Ahti 2000, Fl. Neotr. 78. Partial INTERNET keys: highland Ecuador, Guianas. Picture
• Cladina - Some 15 terricolous species, widespread. Litt.: Ahti 2000, Fl. Neotr. 78. Partial INTERNET keys: highland Ecuador, Guianas. Picture of Cladina: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Cstellaris.html. Other picture
• Cladonia - Some 160, mainly terricolous species, widespread. Litt.: Ahti 2000, Cladoniaceae, Flora Neotropica 78. Partial INTERNET keys: highland Ecuador, Guianas. Picture of Cladonia: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Ccornuta.html. Other picture
• Clathroporina - Corticolous in lowland forest, widespread. Litt.: Aptroot, A. & H.J.M. Sipman 1994 ("1993") - Trichotheliaceae (Lichens), p. 1-57 in: (A.R.A. Görts-van Rijn (ed.), Flora of the Guianas Ser. E, Fasc. 2. McCarthy, P.M. 1995: A reappraisal of Clathroporina Müll. Arg. (Trichotheliaceae). Lichenol. 27: 321-350.
• Clavulinopsis - Single species apparently known from single collection, C. coronilla (Martin) Corner from c. 1500 m in Colombia. Litt.: Martin in Lilloa 5: 196, as Clavaria.
• Clypeopyrenis - Corticolous, widespread. Litt.: Aptroot 1991, Bibl. Lichenol. 44. Picture.
• Coccocarpia - A common genus on various substrates. Litt.: Arvidsson, L. 1982 - A monograph of the lichen genus Coccocarpia. Op. Bot. 67, 96 pp., f. 1-63. V. Marcano et al. 1995. El genero Coccocarpia (Ascomicetes liquenizados) en Venezuela. Tropical Bryology 10: 215-227. Picture.
• Coenogonium - Mainly epiphytic in forest undergrowth. Litt.: Uyenco 1963, Bryologist 66: 217-224. Lücking, R. 1999. Additions and corrections to the foliicolous lichen flora of Costa Rica. The family Gyalectaceae. Lichenologist 31: 359-374. Lücking & Kalb (2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61) include the genus Dimerella in Coenogonium, and present the required new combinations for foliicolous species.
• Collema - Widespread, mainly on bark. Litt.: Degelius, G. 1974 - The lichen genus Collema with special reference to the extra-european species. Symb. Bot. Upsal. 20(2), 215 pp. Picture of Collema: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Ccoccophorum.html. Other picture.
• Collemopsidium - On rock.
• Coniarthonia - On bark. Treatment: M. Grube 2001: Coniarthonia, a new genus of arthonioid lichens. Lichenologist 33 (6): 491-502..
• Conotrema - Epiphytic. A neotropical species, treated by Harris (1995, More Florida Lichens, p. 16) as "Ocellularia" stictidea, may belong here but deviates to some extent.
• (Cora - Included in Dictyonema)
• (Corella - Included in Dictyonema)
• (Cratiria - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Cresponea - Widespread forest epiphyte. Litt.: Egea J.M. & P. Torrente 1993 - Cresponea a new genus of lichenized fungi in the order Arthoniales (Ascomycotina). Mycotaxon 48: 301-331.
• Crocynia - Two common, corticolous species, C. gossypina (Sw.) Mass. with lecanorine apothecia growing in shady conditions, and C. pyxinoides Nyl. with biatorine apothecia, in better illuminated conditions.
• Cryptolechia - Epiphytic or on rock in lowlands.
• Cryptothecia - Widespread and common epiphyte, particularly in open situations. The foliicolous representatives include the genus Amazonomyces (see above), in which the asci are produced in well defined ascomata, while in C. s.str. they are produced in hardly differentiated parts of the thallus. See key in Lücking et al., Lichenologist 30: 134. Pictures
• Cryptothele
• Cryptothelium - Widespread, corticolous, mainly in lowland forest. Litt.: Harris, R.C. 1986("1984") - The family Trypetheliaceae (Loculoascomycetes: lichenized Melanommatales) in Amazonian Brazil. Suppl. Acta Amazonica 14(1-2): 55-80.
• Cyclographina - Synonym of Diorygma.
• Cystocoleus - Single species: C. ebeneus (Dillwyn) Thwaites, on rock above c. 3000 m.
• Cyphelium - 1 species, C. tigillare (Ach.) Ach., known from a single locality in Mexico. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Cyphellostereum - 2 species on mossy banks at c. 2000-3000 m. Litt.: Reid, D.A. 1965: A monograph of the stipitate steroid fungi. Beih. Nova Hedwigia 18.
• Dendriscocaulon - On mossy treetrunks in the mountains. Supposed to be cyanobacteria-containing stages of species of Sticta and Lobaria.
• Dermatocarpon - On rocks at mid-elevations: D. miniatum (L.) Mann in Caribbean and Mexico; it is unclear whether other species occur in the Neotropics?
• Dibaeis - Terricolous, common on road banks in the mountains above c. 1500 m. Litt.: Gierl, C. & K. Kalb 1993 - Die Flechtengattung Dibaeis. Eine Übersicht über die rosafrüchtigen Arten von Baeomyces sens. lat. nebst Anmerkungen zu Phyllobaeis gen. nov. Herzogia 9: 593-645. Partial INTERNET key: highland Ecuador. Picture of Dibaeis: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Dbaeomyces.html.
• Dichosporidium - On treetrunks in old forest at low- to mid-elevations. Litt.: Thor, G. 1990 - The lichen genus Chiodecton and five allied genera. Opera Botanica 103.
• Dictyographa - rarely found genus related to Opegrapha, reported from Bolivia.
• Dictyonema - Litt.: Chaves, J.L. et al. 2004: A first assessment of the ticolichen biodiversity inventory in Costa Rica: the genus Dictyonema (Polyporales: Atheliaceae). Bryol. 107: 242-249; Parmasto, E. 1977 ("1978") - The Genus Dictyonema ("Thelephorolichenes"). Nova Hedwigia 29: 99-144. Pictures
• Digitothyrea
• Dimelaena - One species, D. tenuis (Müll. Arg.) H. Mayrhofer & Wippel, on rock in lowland. Litt.: Mayrhofer, H., M. Matzer, A. Wippel & J. A. Elix 1996. The genus Dimelaena (Lichenized Ascomycetes, Physciaceae) in the southern hemisphere. Mycotaxon 58: 293-311.
• Dimerella - Common and widespread on various substrates, mainly in forest. Litt.: Lücking, R. 1999. Additions and corrections to the foliicolous lichen flora of Costa Rica. The family Gyalectaceae. Lichenologist 31: 359-374. Considered as a synonym of Coenogonium by Lücking & Kalb (2000), Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61.
• Diorygma - see note under Graphis.
• Diorygma - Epihytic, widespread. Key and descriptions: Kalb, K., Staiger, B. & Elix, J.A. 2004: A monograph of the lichen genus Diorygma - a first attempt. Symb. Bot. Ups. 34(1): 133-181. Provisional treatment for Costa Rica. Picture.
• Diploschistes - Terricolous, common on road banks in the mountains.
• Dirina - Coastal, never far from the sea. Litt.: Tehler, A. 1983 - The genera Dirina and Roccellina (Roccellaceae). Opera Bot. 70.
• Dirinaria - Litt.: Awasthi, D.D. 1975 - A monograph of the lichen genus Dirinaria. Biblioth. Lichenol. 2, 108 pp., map 1-16, f. 1-59. This treatment is to some extent disputed; most (or all?) neotropical species can be found in Harris 1995 (More Florida Lichens, p. 47).
• Distopyrenis - Corticolous, known from few specimens. Litt.: Aptroot 1991, Bibl. Lichenol. 44.
• (Ditremis - Syn. of Anisomeridium)
• Durietzia - Genus name erroneously used for Lobariella.
• Dyplolabia - Epiphytic on smooth bark, often in cultivated places. Until recently included in Graphis, but easily recognizable by the white, C+ red lirellae. Litt.: K. Kalb & B. Staiger 2000, Hoppea 61: 409-422. Picture
• Echinoplaca - Foliicolous or on other organic substrates, various species. Litt.: Kalb, K. & Vezda, A. 1988: Neue oder bemerkenswerte Arten der Flechtenfamilie Gomphillaceae in der Neotropis. Biblioth. Lichenol. 29.
• Endocarpon - Terricolous or on mossy rock in lowlands.
• (Endohyalina - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Enterographa - Epiphytic or foliicolous, mainly in lowland forest, often near the coast. Monograph: Sparrius, L.B. 2004, A monograph of Enterographa and Sclerophyton. - Biblioth. Lichenol. 89: 1-141.
• Ephebe - On crystalline rock in lowlands (E. brasiliensis).
• Eremothecella - Foliicolous, mainly in lowland forest. Litt.: Sérusiaux, E. 1992: Reinstatement of the lichenized genus Eremothecella Sydow. Systema Ascomycetum 11: 39-47.
• Erioderma - Epiphyte, often on twigs, in humid mountain vegetation, rarely below 2000 m, about 20 species. Litt.: Jørgensen, P.M. & L. Arvidsson 2002. The lichen genus Erioderma (Pannariaceae) in Ecuador and neighbouring countries. Nordic Journal of Botany 22: 87-114; Jørgensen, P.M. 2001. The sorediate species of the lichen genus Erioderma Fée. Nova Hedwigia 73: 497-512.
• Erythrodecton - One species, E. granulatum (Mont.) Thor, corticolous in lowland forest. Litt.: Thor, G. 1990 - The lichen genus Chiodecton and five allied genera. Opera Botanica 103.
• Eschatogonia - Common species, corticolous in lowland forest: Eschatogonia prolifera (Mont.) R. Sant.; probably other species present.
• Exiliseptum - Single species E. ocellatum (Müll. Arg.) Leighton, corticolous. Litt.: Harris, R.C. 1986("1984") - The family Trypetheliaceae (Loculoascomycetes: lichenized Melanommatales) in Amazonian Brazil. Suppl. Acta Amazonica 14(1-2): 55-80.
• Everniastrum - Mainly epiphytic, in mountain forest and clearings. Litt.: Sipman, H. 1986 - Notes on the lichen genus Everniastrum (Parmeliaceae). Mycotaxon 26: 235-251.
• Fellhanera - Widespread on leaves and bark. Litt.: Sérusiaux, E. 1996: Foliicolous lichens from Madeira, with the description of a new genus and two new species and a world-wide key of foliicolous Fellhanera. Lichenol. 28: 197-227. Key to all sorediate species: R. Lücking & R. Santesson 2001: New species or interesting records of foliicolous lichens VIII. Lichenologist 33 (2): 111-116.
• Finkia - On calcareous rock in lowlands.
• Fissurina - Genus of Graphidaceae not used in the System of Müller Arg., based on ascoma form, including species with immersed ascomata with thin, uncarbonized margins. Litt.: B. Staiger & K. Kalb 1999, Acanthothecis and other graphidioid lichens with warty periphysoids or paraphysis-tips. Mycotaxon 73: 69-134. See also note under Graphis. Picture 
• (Flakea - Included in Agonimia)
• Flavobathelium - Widespread on leaves in lowland forest, single species F. epiphyllum R. Lücking, Aptroot & Thor. Litt.: Lücking, R., Aptroot, A. & Thor, G. 1997: New species or interesting records of foliicolous lichens. II. Flavobathelium epiphyllum (Lichenized Ascomycetes: Melanommatales). Lichenologist 29(3): 221-228.
• Flavoparmelia - Widespread in the mountains. Litt. (under Pseudoparmelia): Hale, M.E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Pseudoparmelia Lynge (Parmeliaceae). Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 31: 1-62, f. 1-18. New combinations in: Hale, M.E. 1986: Flavoparmelia, a new genus in the lichen family Parmeliaceae (Ascomycotina). Mycotaxon 25: 603-605. Picture of Flavoparmelia caperata: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Fcaperata.html.
• Flavopunctelia - Widespread in the mountains. Litt.: Hale, M.E. 1984 - Flavopunctelia, a new genus in the Parmeliaceae (Ascomycotina). Mycotaxon 20: 681-682. Picture of Flavopunctelia: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Fsoredica.html.
• (Fluctua - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Fuscidea - On rock at high elevations in humid mountains.
• Fuscopannaria - Single neotropical species? F. leucosticta (Tuck.) P.M. Jørg. (syn. Pannaria leucosticta Tuck.), epiphytic in mountain forest in Mexico. Litt.: Jørgensen P.M. 1994. Studies in the lichen family Pannariaceae VI. the taxonomy and phytogeography of Pannaria Del. s.lat. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 76: 197-206.
• (Gassicurtia - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Glaucinaria - synonym of Diorygma.
• (Gloeolecta - Syn. of Bryophagus)
• (Glossodium - Included in Icmadophila)
• Glyphis - Single species G. cicatricosa Ach.: ascospores hyaline, bacillar, 30-38 x 8-9 µm, 8-12-celled, with thin halo, 8/ascus, with I+ violet septa. Widespread in tropical lowlands, often in secondary vegetation. Genus expanded by Staiger (2002), see note under Graphis. Picture.
• Gomphillus - Two species, G. ophiosporus Kalb & Vezda and G. caribaeus W. R. Buck, in humid mountains. Litt.: Kalb, K. & Vezda, A. 1988: Neue oder bemerkenswerte Arten der Flechtenfamilie Gomphillaceae in der Neotropis. Biblioth. Lichenol. 29; W. R. Buck, 1998: Lichen flora of eastern North America: the genus Gomphillus (Gomphillaceae). Lichenographia Thomsoniana, p. 71-76.
• Granulopyrenis - Corticolous, known from few specimens. Litt.: Aptroot 1991, Bibl. Lichenol. 44.
• Graphina - Common and widespread, mainly corticolous, when the genus concept of Müller Arg. is followed; according to Staiger (2002) a synonym of Thalloloma, a much smaller genus with usually red-pigmented discs, see note under Graphis. Picture.
• Graphis - Common and widespread, mainly corticolous. The genera Graphina, Graphis, Phaeographina and Phaeographis have been used for a long time in an artificial classification of the main species group in the family Graphidaceae, followed by, e.g., Müller Arg., Zahlbruckner and Hale. Recently a more natural classification is proposed: Staiger, B. 2002. Die Flechtenfamilie Graphidaceae. Studien in Richtung einer natürlicheren Gliederung. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 85: 1-526. This study recognizes several additional genera: Anomomorpha, Carbacanthographis, Diorygma, Dyplolabia, Fissurina, Glaucinaria, Gymnographa, Hemithecium, Leiorreuma, Platygramme, Platythecium, Thalloloma, Thecaria. Picture. A provisional, illustrated treatment of the group for Costa Rica.
• Gyalecta
• Gyalectidium - Foliicolous, widespread. Litt.: Lücking, R. 1992: Foliicolous lichens - A contribution to the knowledge of the lichen flora of Costa Rica, Central America. - Beih. Nova Hedwigia 104: 1-179. Ferraro, L.I., Lücking, R., Serusiaux. E. 2001: A world monograph of the lichen genus Gyalectidium (Gomphillaceae). Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society 137 (3): 311-345.  Picture.
• Gyalidea - Litt.: Vezda, A. 1991 - Die Flechtengattung Gyalidea Lett. ex Vezda (Solorinellaceae), eine Übersicht mit Bestimmungsschlüssel. Nova Hedwigia 53(1-2): 99-113.
• Gyalideopsis - Widespread on various substrates. Litt.: Kalb, K. & Vezda, A. 1988: Neue oder bemerkenswerte Arten der Flechtenfamilie Gomphillaceae in der Neotropis. Biblioth. Lichenol. 29. Kalb, K. & Vezda, A. 1994: Neue Arten der Flechtengattung Gyalideopsis Vezda (Gomphillaceae). Nova Hedwigia 58: 511-528.
• Gyrocollema - On calcareous rock in lowlands.
• Gyrostomum - Single (?) species G. scyphuliferum (Ach.) Nyl.: ascospores muriform, hyaline, 30-35 x 10-12 µm, composed of c. 10 x 3 cells, with I+ violet septa. Included by Staiger (2002) in Glyphis, see note under Graphis. Picture.
• Haematomma - Widespread, about 20, mainly corticolous species. Litt.: Staiger, B. & K. Kalb 1995 - Haematomma-Studien. Biblioth. Lichenol. 59: 1-222, Abb 1-27. Picture of Haematomma: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Haccolens.html.
• Hafellia - Saxicolous and corticolous in well-illuminated situations. Litt.: B. Marbach, 2000, Corticole und lignicole Arten der Flechtengattung Buellia sensu lato in den Subtropen und Tropen. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 74; J. Etayo & B. Marbach 2003: Hafellia alisioae and H. gomerana (lichenized Ascomycetes, Physciaceae), two new species from the Canary Islands, with a key to all known corticolous species. Lichenologist 35: 369-375..
• Helminthocarpon - One, probably widespread, corticolous lowland species, H. leprevostii Fée. Litt.: Awasthi, D. D. & Joshi, M. 1979: The lichen genera Helminthocarpon, Cyclographa, and Cyclographina (gen. nov.). Norwegian Journ. Bot. 26: 165-177.
• Hemithecium - see note under Graphis.
• Heterocyphelium - 1 species, H. leucampyx (Tuck.) Vainio, widespread, corticolous. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Heterodermia - Litt. (under Anaptychia): Kurokawa, S. 1962 - A monograph of the genus Anaptychia. Beih. Nova Hedwigia 6. Pictures
• Hyperphyscia - Widespread, mainly corticolous and in rather dry lowlands. Litt.: Scutari, N. C. 1991: Hyperphyscia variabilis, a new foliose species of Physciaceae with 3-septate spores. Lichenol. 23: 21-26.
• Hypocenomyce - Highlands, Hypocenomyce scalaris (Ach.) Choisy., other species? Litt.: Timdal, E. 1984: The genus Hypocenomyce (Lecanorales, Lecideaceae), with special emphasis on the Norwegian and Swedish species. Nordic Journ. Bot. 4: 83-108.
• (Hypoflavia - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Hypogymnia - Single species, Hypogymnia bitteri (Lynge) Ahti, with brownish thallus and capitate soralia on short lateral lobes, on mossy rock around 4000 m.
• Hypotrachyna - About 100 species, mainly at 1000-3000 m. Litt.: Hale, M.E. 1975 - A revision of the lichen genus Hypotrachyna (Parmeliaceae) in tropical America. Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 25: i-iii, 1-73, f. 1-20. internet key.
• Icmadophila - Single species, I. aversum (Nyl.) Rambold & Hertel, above 3000 m among moss on tree bases etc.
• Jenmania - Single species J. goebelii Wächt., known from a single collection on rock in river in lowland Guyana. Picture.
• Josefpoeltia - Two species, epiphytic or on rock, in the dryer, southern parts of the Andes, the primary species J. boliviensis Kondratyuk & Kärnef. and the sorediate J. boliviensis Kondratyuk & Kärnef. Litt.: Kondratyuk & Kärnefelt 1997, Bibliotheca Lichenologica 68: 19-44. Picture.
• Julella - Two corticolous species, not really lichenized. Litt.: Aptroot, A. & Boom, P. P. G. van den, 1995: Strigula lateralis spec. nov. with notes on the genus Julella (Ascomycetes). Mycotaxon 56: 1-8.
• Kalbiana - Known from a single collection on rock in Brazil. Litt.: Kalb, K.1988: Lichenes Neotropici, Fascikel X (No. 401-450). 16 pp.
• Lasioloma - Widespread and common lowland foliicolous species in Neotropics L. arachnoideum (Kremp.) R. Sant. Key to all species: R. Lücking & E. Sérusiaux, Lasioloma stephanellum comb. nov. (lichenized ascomycetes: Ectolechiaceae), Mycotaxon 77: 301-304. Picture.
• Laurera - Corticolous, mainly in lowlands. Litt.: Letrouit-Galinou, M.A. 1957: Révision monographique du genre Laurera. Rev. Bryol. Lichénol. 25: 207-264, f. 1-10.
• Lecanactis - Corticolous on tree trunks, or on rock, mainly in lowlands. Litt.: Egea J.M. & P. Torrente 1994 - El género de hongos liquenizados Lecanactis (Ascomycotina). Bibl. Lichenol. 54.
• Lecania - Probably only a single species L. sulphureofusca (Fée) Müll. Arg., with large, single ascospores, seemingly not closely related to the other species attributed to the genus, which have much smaller spores, 8 per ascus. Picture.
• Lecanographa - Corticolous on tree trunks, or on rock, mainly in lowlands. Litt.: Egea J.M. & P. Torrente 1994 - El género de hongos liquenizados Lecanactis (Ascomycotina). Bibl. Lichenol. 54.
• Lecanora - Common and widespread. Partial, illustrated key with descriptions: Guderley, R. 1999 - Die Lecanora subfusca-Gruppe in Süd- und Mittelamerika. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 87: 131-257. Picture of Lecanora: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Largopholis.html.
• Lecidea - Saxicolous at high elevations.
• Lecidella - On rock or epiphytic. Picture.
• Leioderma - Occasional in humid mountain forests. Litt.: Galloway, D. J. & Jørgensen, P. M. 1987: Studies in the lichen family Pannariaceae II. the lichen genus Leioderma Nyl. Lichenol. 19: 345-400. Picture of Leioderma sorediatum: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Lsorediata.html.
• Leiorreuma - see note under Graphis.
• Lempholemma
• Lepidostroma - Single species: L. calocerum (Martin) Oberw., syn. L. terricolens. Litt.: K. Mägdefrau & S. Winkler 1967 in Mitt. Inst. Colombo-Aleman Invest. Cient. 1: 11-17.
• Lepraria - Widespread on tree trunks or rock. Picture.
• Leprocaulon - In humid mountains, on tree trunks or on soil. Litt.: Lamb, I.M. & A. Ward, 1974 - A preliminary conspectus of the species attributed to the imperfect lichen genus Leprocaulon Nyl. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 38: 499-553, fig. 1-11.
• Leprocollema
• Leproloma - Widespread on rock.
• Leptogium - Common and widespread, many species. Litt.: Jørgensen, P.M. 1975 - Contributions to a monograph of the Mallotium-hairy Leptogium species. Herzogia 3: 433-460. Jørgensen, P. M. 1997 - Further notes on hairy Leptogium species. Acta Univ. Upsal. Symb. Bot. Ups. 32:1, 113-130. (with new key).
• (Leptotrema - Included in Myriotrema, Ocellularia and Thelotrema)
• Letrouitia - Widespread, mainly in lowland forest. Litt.: Hafellner, J. 1981 - Monographie der Flechtengattung Letrouitia (Lecanorales, Teloschistaceae). Nova Hedwigia 35: 645-729, Abb. 1-26. Picture
• Leucodecton - Genus name used in a heterogenous way; pertinent species now included in, e.g. Sclerophyton.
• Linhartia - Foliicolous in lowlands, in rather open vegetation. Considered as a synonym of Psorotheciopsis by Lücking 1999, Cryptogamie Mycologie 20(3): 193-224.
• Lithothelium - On trees or rock, mainly in lowlands. Litt.: Aptroot, A. 1991, Biblioth. Lichenol. 44. Picture.
• Lobaria - Mainly in montane forests, rarely below 1000 m. Preliminary keys to selected species: I. Yoshimura, 1998, Lobaria in Latin America: taxonomic, geographic and evolutionary aspects, pp. 129-134 in M. P. Marcelli & M. R. D. Seaward (eds.), Lichenology in Latin America. CETESB, Sao Paulo, 179 pp. The Lobaria crenulata group, characterized by pseudocyphellae or maculae on the upper surface, is recognized as an own genus, Durietzia, see I. Yoshimura (1998), Vainio and Lobaria, old and modern concepts, p. 85-94 in: M. P. Marcelli & T. Ahti (eds.), Recollecting Edvard August Vainio. CETESB, Sao Paulo, 188 pp. Picture of Lobaria: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Llinita.html. Other picture
• Lobariella - Five species, mainly in montane forests, rarely below 1000 m. Originally treated as Lobaria crenulata group, and erreoneously included in Durietzia. Litt.: Yoshimura, I. 1984 - Taxonomic studies on Lobaria crenulata and its allies. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 57: 57-66. Yoshimura, I. & Arvidsson, L. 1994 - Taxonomy and chemistry of the Lobaria crenulata group in Ecuador. Acta Bot. Fennica 150: 223-233. Newest key in: I. Yoshimura, 1998, Lobaria in Latin America: taxonomic, geographic and evolutionary aspects, pp. 129-134 in M. P. Marcelli & M. R. D. Seaward (eds.), Lichenology in Latin America. CETESB, Sao Paulo, 179 pp. Lobariella-combinations in Nash et al. 2002, Lichen flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert Region Vol 1: 270.
• Loflammia - Foliicolous in lowland forest.
• Loflammiopsis - Foliicolous in lowland forest, single species. Description: Lücking & Kalb 2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61.
• Logilvia - Foliicolous in lowland forest. Picture.
• Lopacidia - Corticolous in lowlands, often in secondary vegetation. Litt.: Litt.: Kalb, K. 1984: Lichenes Neotropici Fasz. VIII. Recently included in Bapalmuia.
• Lopezaria - Single, epiphytic species L. versicolor (Fée) Kalb & Hafellner, in mountain forests above c. 2000 m. Litt.: Kalb, K. 1990: Lichenes Neotropici Fasz. XI.
• Lyromma - Foliicolous in lowland forest. Key to 4 species: Lücking & Kalb 2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61.
• Macentina - Mainly foliicolous in lowland forest. Key: Orange, A. 1991 - Macentina dictyospora (Verrucariaceae), a new lichenized species from Sweden. Lichenologist 23(1): 15-20.
• Malcolmiella - comprising a group of species formerly included in the genus Lecidea and centered around "Lecidea" piperis - Widespread, corticolous or sometimes foliicolous, mainly in lowland forest. The genus was recently described, and few species are so far included; most remain to be transferred from Lecidea sensu lato. Five combinations and a new species are presented by Lücking & Kalb (2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61). Picture.
• Maronea
• Maronina - Single, corticolous species, M. multifera (Nyl.) Haf. & Rogers. Litt.: Hafellner, J. & Rogers, R. W. 1990: Maronina - a new genus of lichenised Ascomycetes (Lecanorales, Lecanoraceae) with multisporous asci. Biblioth. Lichenol. 38: 99-108. Picture.
• Mazaediothecium - 1 species, M. album Aptroot, known from type loc. only, Costa Rica 1 m. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69. Picture.
• Mazosia - Foliicolous, sometimes corticolous, in forest. Litt.: Kalb, K. & A. Vezda 1988 - Die Flechtengattung Mazosia in der Neotropis (eine taxonomisch-phytogeographische Studie). Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 23: 199-210. Picture.
• Medusulina - Corticolous, probably widespread. Included by Staiger (2002) in Fissurina, see note under Graphis. Picture.
• Megalaria - Corticolous, probably widespread. Picture.
• Megaloblastenia - Single species, M. marginiflexa (Hook. & Tayl.) Sipm. var. dimota (Malme) Sipm. Litt.: Sipman, H.J.M. 1983 - A monograph of the lichen family Megalosporaceae. Biblioth. Lichenol. 18: 1-241, pl. 1-24.
• Megalospora - Spores mostly one-septate or bacillar. one species with single, muriform spores. Litt.: Sipman, H.J.M. 1983 - A monograph of the lichen family Megalosporaceae. Biblioth. Lichenol. 18: 1-241, pl. 1-24. Sipman, H. 1986 - Additional notes on the lichen family Megalosporaceae. Willdenowia 15: 557-564. Internet key: http://www.bgbm.org/sipman/keys/Megalokey.htm
• Megalotremis - Corticolous in undergrowth of lowland forests, rarely found because the ascocarps are completely covered by a rather thick, seemingly sterile, greenish thallus. Litt.: Aptroot, A. 1991, Biblioth. Lichenol. 44. Harris (1995) includes the genus in Anisomeridium, and offers a key to the species.
• Megaspora - Single species, Megaspora verrucosa (Ach.) Hafelln. & V. Wirth, found on exposed, mossy rock or bark above c. 3000 m.
• Melaspilea
• Menegazzia - Epiphytic, found occasionally on humid sites above 3000 m. The 3 known neotropical species are treated in: Bjerke, J.W. 2002. A new fertile species of Menegazzia and notes on two sorediate species from the Neotropics. Lichenologist 54 (6): 503-508. Synopsis: Bjerke, J.W., Synopsis of the lichen genus Menegazzia (Parmeliaceae, Ascomycota) in South America. Mycotaxon 91: 423-454, 2005. Picture of Menegazzia: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Mterebrata.html.
• Metamelanea - On granite rock in lowlands. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Micarea
• Microtheliopsis - Common foliicolous species Microtheliopsis uleana Müll. Arg., widespread in lowland forest. Litt.: Lücking, R. 1994: A new foliicolous species of Microtheliopsis (Lichens, Microtheliopsidaceae) from Costa Rica. Mycotaxon 51: 69-73. Additional species in Lücking & Kalb (2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61).
• Milospium - Widespread lichenicolous fungus on indet. pale grey thin crustose lichen, probably various Opegraphales; single species M. graphideorum (Nyl.) Hawksw. Litt.: Hawksworth; D. L. 1975. Trans. British Mycol. Soc. 65: 219-238.
• Monoblastia - Corticolous at low elevations. Litt.: Harris, R. C. 1995: More Florida lichens.
• Multiclavula - On loamy soil of forest trails and on rotting logs in humid mountain forest. Picture of Multiclavula: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Mcorynoides.html.
• Musaespora - Corticolous or foliicolous in lowland forest. Litt.: Aptroot, A. & Sipman, H. 1993. Lichenol. 25: 121-135.
• Mycobilimbia - Tropical material is probably not congeneric with European taxa, corticolous or on road banks.
• Mycocalicium -4 species. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69. Picture.
• Mycomicrothelia - On smooth, young bark in canopy or open vegetation. Litt.: Hawksworth, D.L. 1985 - A redisposition of the species referred to the ascomycete genus Microthelia. Bull. Brit. mus. (Nat. Hist.), Bot. 14(2): 43-181. Aptroot, A. 1991. Biblioth. Lichenol. 44. Compiled web key to the species worldwide. Picture.
• Mycoporum - Corticolous. Litt.: Harris 1995, More Florida Lichens. Picture.
• (Mycoporellum - Included in Mycoporum)
• Myelochroa - Three species, M. aurulenta (Tuck.) Elix & Hale, M. immiscens (Nyl.) Elix & Hale, M. lindmanii (Lynge) Elix & Hale. Litt. (under Parmelina): Hale, M. E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Parmelina Hale (Parmeliaceae). Smiths. Contr. Bot. 33: i-iii, 1-60, fig. 1-20.
• Myeloconis - Epiphytes of shady forest. Litt.: McCarthy, P. M. & J. A. Elix 1996 - Myeloconis, a new genus of pyrenocarpous lichens from the Tropics. Lichenologist 28(5): 401-414. Picture.
• Myriotrema (incl. Leptotrema pr.p., Phaeotrema pr.p.) - Widespread, mostly epiphytic. Litt.: Hale, M. E. 1978 - A Revision of the Lichen Family Thelotremataceae in Panama. Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 38: 1-60, f. 1-15. Pictures.
• Nadvornikia -2 species. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Naetrocymbe - Litt.: Harris 1995, More Florida Lichens.
• Nephroma - Single species N. helveticum Ach. (syn. N. tropicum (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr.), widespread in mountains above c. 2500 m, mostly epiphytic. Picture of Nephroma helveticum: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Nhelveticum.html.
• (Neuropogon - Included in Usnea)
• Normandina - Single species: N. pulchella (Borrer) Nyl., widespread, particularly in montane zone. Litt.: Aptroot 1991, Willdenowia 21: 263-267.
• Ocellularia (incl. Leptotrema pr.p., Phaeotrema pr.p.) - Widespread epiphytes, occasionally over moss. Litt.: Hale, M. E. 1978 - A revision of the lichen family Thelotremataceae in Panama. Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 38: 1-60, f. 1-15. Current research may lead to subdivision of the genus; an already published segregate is Ampliotrema. Pictures.
• Ochrolechia - Few, widespread species (commonest O. africana Vain.). Litt.: Brodo 1991, Canad. J. Bot. 698: 733-772. Picture of Ochrolechia: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Ooregonensis.html.
• Omphalina - Terricolous in alpine situations of the northern Andes; O. foliacea Jörg. Litt.: Jørgensen, P.M. 1989: Omphalina foliacea, a new basidiolichen from America. Nordic J. Bot. 9: 89-95. Redhead, S. A. & Kuyper, T. W. 1987: Lichenized agarics, taxonomic and nomenclatural riddles. Arctic and alpine mycology 2: 319-348.
• Opegrapha - Common and widespread on bark or leaves, more rarely on rock.
• Oropogon - Ca. 20 species, above 2000 m. Litt.: Esslinger, T. L. 1989 - Systematics of Oropogon (Alectoriaceae) in the New World. Systematic Botany Monographs 28.
• Pannaria - Mainly epiphytic in montane forests.
• Paraparmelia - Uncommon, on rock in southern Brazil and Uruguay. Litt. (under Pseudoparmelia): Hale, M. E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Pseudoparmelia Lynge (Parmeliaceae). Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 31: 1-62, f. 1-18. List of new combinations: Elix, Johnston & Verdon, 1986, Mycotaxon 27: 271-282.
• Paratricharia - Foliicolous in undergrowth of tropical lowland forest. Single species P. paradoxa (R. Lücking) R. Lücking. Litt.: R. Lücking 1991, Nova Hedwigia 52(3-4): 267-304 (as Tricharia); R. Lücking 1997, Bibliotheca Lichenol. 65.
• Parmelia - Uncommon, only above 3500 m (or not yet known with certainty?). Litt.: Hale, M. E. 1987 - A monograph of the lichen genus Parmelia Acharius sensu stricto (Ascomycotina: Parmeliaceae). Smiths. Contr. Bot. 66: i-iii, 1-55.
• Parmeliella - Mainly epiphytic in montane forests. Litt.: Jørgensen, P.M. 2000 - New or interesting Parmeliella species from the Andes and Central America. Lichenologist 32(2): 139-147.
• Parmelinella - Not yet known from the Neotropics. Litt. (under Parmelina): Hale, M. E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Parmelina Hale (Parmeliaceae). Smiths. Contr. Bot. 33: i-iii, 1-60, fig. 1-20. New combinations published in: Elix, J. A. & Hale, M. E. 1987, Mycotaxon 29: 233-244.
• Parmelinopsis - Epiphytic, mainly in humid, montane forests. Litt. (partly under Parmelina): Hale, M. E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Parmelina Hale (Parmeliaceae). Smiths. Contr. Bot. 33: i-iii, 1-60, fig. 1-20. New combinations published in: Elix, J. A. & Hale, M. E. 1987, Mycotaxon 29: 233-244. Marcelli 1993, Acta bot. bras. 7: 25-70.
• Parmeliopsis - Epiphyte in northern Andes above 3000 m; isidiate species: Parmeliopsis venezolana (Hale) DePriest & B.Hale
• Parmotrema - Widespread and common. Litt. (under Parmelia): Hale, M. E. 1965 - A monograph of Parmelia subgenus Amphigymnia. Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb. 36(5): 193-358, pl. 1-16, f. 1-29. New combinations published in: Hale 1974, Phytologia 28: 334-339. internet key. Picture of Parmotrema chinense: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Pchinense.html. Other picture.
• Parmotremopsis - Widespread epiphytes. Litt. (under Parmelina): Hale, M. E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Parmelina Hale (Parmeliaceae). Smiths. Contr. Bot. 33: i-iii, 1-60, fig. 1-20. New combinations published in: Elix, J. A. & Hale, M. E. 1987, Mycotaxon 29: 233-244.
• Paulia - Reported species: P. myriocarpa (Zahlbr.) Henssen and P. gibbosa Henssen, from lowland Venezuela.. Litt.: Schultz, M., Mies, B. & Al-Gifri, A. N. 1999. Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495. New localities of some Paulia species ((Lichinaceae, Lichenized Ascomycotina) from Socotra (Indian Ocean). Bryologist 102(1): 61-66.
• Peltigera - Widespread and common above c. 2000 m, particularly on road banks. Preliminary key: O. Vitikainen, 1998, Taxonomic notes on neotropical species of Peltigera, pp. 135-139 in M. P. Marcelli & M. R. D. Seaward (eds.), Lichenology in Latin America. CETESB, Sao Paulo, 179 pp. Picture of Peltigera: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Pneopolydactyla.html.
• Peltula - On rock in lowlands. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Pertusaria - Widespread and common.
• Phaeographina - Widespread and common, when the genus concept of Müller Arg. is followed, probably absent from the Neotropics when the concept of Staiger (2002) is followed; see note under Graphis. Picture.
• Phaeographis - Widespread and common; see note under Graphis. See also next genus. Picture.
• Phaeographopsis - Recently discovered in Costa Rica (Kalb, Biblioth. Lichenol. 88: 313, 2004); resembles Phaeographis, and differs because the spores when ripe are without endospore.
• Phaeophyscia - Widespread and common, especially in secondary habitats.
• (Phaeotrema - Included in Myriotrema, Ocellularia and Thelotrema)
• Phlyctella - Widespread epiphytes; considered congeneric with Phlyctis by some authors.
• Phlyctidia - Single species? P. boliviensis (Nyl.) Müll. Arg., epiphyte above c. 2000 m.
• Phlyctis - neotropical species usually included in Phlyctella.
• Phylliscidium - on granitic rock in the lowlands. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Phylliscum - on granite rock in the lowlands. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Phyllobaeis - Terricolous above c. 2000 m, often on road banks. Litt.: Gierl, C. & K. Kalb 1993 - Die Flechtengattung Dibaeis. Eine Übersicht über die rosafrüchtigen Arten von Baeomyces sens. lat. nebst Anmerkungen zu Phyllobaeis gen. nov. Herzogia 9: 593-645. Partial INTERNET key: highland Ecuador.
• Phyllobathelium - Foliicolous in lowland forests. New combination and important notes in Lücking & Kalb (2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61).
• Phylloblastia - Foliicolous in lowland forests.
• (Phylophiale - Isidiate stage of some Porina species)
• Phyllopeltula - Two, corticolous species, incl. P. steppae Kalb from Venezuela and Paraguay. Litt.: Kalb 2001, Bibl. Lichenol. 78: 158-159.
• (Phylloporis -. Included in Strigula)
• Phyllopsora - Usualy epiphytic in forest. Litt.: Brako 1991, Phyllopsora (Bacidiaceae), Flora Neotropica Monogr. 55.
• Physcia - Widespread on trees and rock on open places, often in cultivated areas. Litt.: Moberg, R. 1990 - The lichen genus Physcia in Central and South America. Nordic J. Bot. 10: 319-342. Picture of Physcia aipolea: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Paipolia.html.
• Physcidia - 5 species, mainly in lowland forest. Litt.: Kalb, K. & Elix, J. A. 1995: The lichen genus Physcidia. Biblioth. Lichenol. 57: 265-296.
• Physma - Common and conspicuous species: P. byrsaeum (Ach.) Tuck., mainly epiphytic in humid, lower mountain areas.
• Phytoconis - see Omphalina.
• Piccolia - On tree trunks in forest. Litt.: Hafellner , J. 1995 - Über Piccolia, eine lichenisierte Pilzgattung der Tropen (Ascomycotina, Lecanorales). Biblioth. Lichenol. 58: 107-122.
• Pilophorus - Single species, P. cereolus (Ach.) Th.Fr., found in subparamo in Costa Rica. Key: H. M. Jahns, 1981, The genus Pilophorus. Mycotaxon 13(2): 289-330.
• Placidium - see Catapyrenium)
• Placomaronea Räsänen - On rock in dry Andes of Peru and Argentina. Litt.: Poelt, J. 1974: Zur Kenntnis der Flechtenfamilie Candelariaceae. Phyton 16: 189-210.
• Placopsis - On humid rock and road banks above 3000 m. Litt.: Lamb, I. M. 1947: A monograph of the lichen genus Placopsis Nyl. Lilloa 13: 151-288.
• Placynthiella - On acid detritus, usually at high elevations?
• Platygramme - see note under Graphis.
• (Plagiotrema - included in Pseudopyrenula)
• Platygraphopsis - Poorly known genus, seemingly close to Sclerophyton.
• Platythecium - see note under Graphis.
• Pocsia - Mainly foliicolous in lowlands. Closely related to Macentina and Leucocarpia. New combinations and discussion in Lücking & Kalb (2000, Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 122: 1-61).
• Polyblastia
• Polychidium - Commonest species, epiphyte in mountain forest: P. dendriscum (Nyl.) Henssen.
• Polymeridium - Mainly on branches in forest canopy or open woodland at lower elevations. Litt.: Harris, R. C. "1991" (1993?) - A revision of Polymeridium (Muell. Arg.) R. C. Harris (Trypetheliaceae). Bol. mus. Par. Emilio Goeldi, sér. Bot. 7(2): 619-644.
• Polystroma - Single species: Polystroma fernandezii Clem. in lowlands of the Guianas (and Cuba?)
• Porina (incl. Phyllophiale, Pseudosagedia, Segestria) - Common and widespread, mainly in shaded forest. Litt.: Aptroot, A. & H. J. M. Sipman 1994 ("1993") - Trichotheliaceae (Lichens), p. 1-57 in: (A. R. A. Görts-van Rijn (ed.), Flora of the Guianas Ser. E, Fasc. 2. McCarthy, P.M. 1993, Saxicolous species of Porina Müll. Arg. (Trichotheliaceae) in the Southern Hemisphere. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 52: 1-134. Lücking presents an internet-key to the foliicolous species world-wide. Printed key to all foliicolous species: Lücking, Biblioth. Lichenol. 88: 409-426, 2004. Picture.
• Porpidia - On rock above c. 3000 m.
• Protoparmelia - On rock above c. 3000 m or epiphytic.
• Pseudevernia - Epiphytes in forest above c. 1500 m in Mexico, Dominican Republic; probably reaching southern limit in Costa Rica; records from further south are doubtful. Three species, isidiate P. consocians (Vain.) Hale & W. Culb. and non-isidiate P. intensa (Nyl.) Hale & W. Culb. in Mexico and Guatemala, non-isidiate P. cladonia (Tuck.) Hale & W. Culb. in the Dominican Republic. Litt.: Hale, M. E. 1968, A synopsis of the lichen genus Pseudevernia. Bryologist 71: 1-11.
• Pseudocyphellaria - In humid mountains. Litt.: Galloway, D. J. & Arvidsson, L. 1990, Studies in Pseudocyphellaria (Lichens) II. Ecuadorian species. Lichenologist 22(2): 103-135. Picture of Pseudocyphellaria aurata: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Paurata.html; picture of Pseudocyphellaria crocata: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Pcrocata.html. Other picture.
• Pseudohepatica - Two species, the larger P. pachyderma P. M. Jørg. known from a single collection from Venezuela, in humid forest at 1600 m in the Guayana Highland. Litt.: Pseudohepatica, a remarkable new lichen genus from Venezuela. Bryologist 96: 435-438.
• Pseudoparmelia - Widespread, mainly epiphytic in montane forest. Litt.: Elix, J. A. & Nash, T. H. 1998. A monograph of the lichen genus Pseudoparmelia (Ascomycotina, Parmeliaceae). Bryologist 100(4): 482-498. Genus currently used in a much restricted sense, ca. 15 species in the Neotropics. Earlier treament, including other, now separated genera: Hale, M. E. 1976 - A monograph of the lichen genus Pseudoparmelia Lynge (Parmeliaceae). Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 31: 1-62, f. 1-18.
• Pseudopyrenula - Epiphytic. (incl. Plagiotrema, commonest species P. lageniferum (Ach.) Müll. Arg. Litt.: Makhija & Patwardhan 1993, J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 73: 183-219, Plagiotrema on p. 209.); R. C. Harris, 1998. A preliminary revision of Pseudopyrenula Müll. Arg. (Lichenized Ascomycetes, Trypetheliaceae) with a redisposition of the names previously assigned to the genus, pp. 133-148 in M. G. Glenn, R. C. Harris, R. Dirig & M. S. Cole (eds.), Lichenographia Thomsoniana. Mycotaxon Ltd.m, Ithaca, 445 pp.
• (Pseudosagedia - Included in Porina)
• Psilolechia - On rock above c. 3000 m.
• Psiloparmelia - On rock in dry mountains above c. 3000 m. Litt.: Elix, J. A. & Nash, T. H. 1992 - A synopsis of the lichen genus Psiloparmelia (Ascomycotina, Parmeliaceae). Bryologist 95: 377-391.
• Psora - On soil in open places at high elevations. Yellow species: P. icterica (Mont.) Müll. Arg., around 4000 m in Ecuador. Litt.: Timdal E, 1986: A revision of Psora (Lecideaceae) in North America. Bryologist 89: 253-275.
• Psorella
• Psoroglaena - A poorly-known pyrenocarpous genus with 3 species known from the Neotropics; close to Agonimia but with minute-fruticose to -squamulose thallus containing filamentous cyanobacteria as photobiont. Litt.: Henssen, A. 1995: Psoroglaena costaricensis, a new lichen from Costa Rica, and remarks on other taxa of the genus Psoroglaena (Verrucariaceae). Biblioth. Lichenol. 57: 100-210.
• Psoroma - On soil in humid, open places asbove 3000 m. Includes P. hypnorum (Vahl) S. Gray and the similar, but hairy P. palaeaceum (Fr.) Nyl.
• Psorotheciopsis - Foliicolous, uncommon? United with Linhartia by Lücking (1999, Cryptogamie Mycologie 20(3): 193-224), who presents a key to 4 species in Costa Rica.
• Psorotichia - On acid, humid rock. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Pterygiopsis - On granitic rock in the lowlands. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Punctelia - Widespread epiphyte in mountains around 1000-2000 m. Litt.: Krog, H. 1982: Punctelia, a new lichen genus in the Parmeliaceae. Nordic Journ. Bot. 2: 287-292. Picture
• Pyrenocollema - Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Pyrenopsis - Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• (Pyrenotrichum - Name for conidial stages of Calopadia, Tapellaria, Sporopodium etc.).
• Pyrenula - Common and widespread epiphyte, often in forest.
• Pyrgidium - 1 species, epiphytic in forest, P. montellicum (Beltr.) Tibell. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Flora Neotr. Monogr. 69.
• Pyrgillus - 3 species, epiphytic in forest. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• (Pyrgillocarpon - Included in Pyrgillus)
• Pyrrhospora - Poorly-known genus; commonest species, widespread in lowlands, epiphytic and on rock: Pyrrhospora russula (Ach.) Hafellner. Picture.
• Pyxine - Widespread, but mostly below 2000 m. Litt.: Kalb, K. 1987 - Brasilianische Flechten 1. Die Gattung Pyxine. Biblioth. Lichenol. 24, 89 pp.
• (Raciborskiella - Included in Strigula)
• Racodium - Single species, above 3000 m on rock: R. rupestre Pers.
• Ramalina - Widespread, often as epiphyte on isolated trees and fences. Litt.: Kashiwadani, H. 1987: Peruvian species of Ramalina (Lichens). In: Studies on Cryptogams in southern Peru (ed. H. Inoue). Tokai University Press. p. 129-144. Kashiwadani, H. & Kalb, K. 1993: The genus Ramalina in Brazil. Lichenologist 25: 1-31. Picture of Ramalina: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Rstenospora.html.
• Ramonia
• Relicina - Two common species in the neotropics with norstictic acid: R. abstrusa (Vainio) Hale with isidia, and R. subabstrusa (Gyelnik) Hale without isidia. Litt.: Hale, M. E. 1975 - A monograph of the lichen genus Relicina (Parmeliaceae). Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 26: 1-32, fig. 1-16. Elix, J. A. 1996: A revision of the lichen genus Relicina. Biblioth. Lichenol. 62. Internet key worldwide.
• Reimnitzia - Genus recently proposed by Kalb (Mycotaxon 79: 325, 2001) for the species previously known as Thelotrema santense or Leptotrema santense. See also CR thelotremataceae key
• Rhizocarpon - On rock, only exceptionally on wood at high elevations. Picture of Rhizocarpon geographicum: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Rgeographicum.html.
• Rimelia - Widespread, often in secondary vegetation. Litt.: Hale, M. E. & Fletcher, A. 1990: Rimelia Hale & Fletcher, a new lichen genus (Ascomycotina: Parmeliaceae). Bryologist 93: 23-29. internet key. Picture of Rimelia reticulata: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Rreticulata.html.
• Rimeliella - Widespread. Litt.: Kurokawa, S. 1991. Rimeliella, a new lichen genus related to Rimelia of the Parmeliaceae. Annals of the Tsukuba Botanical Garden 10: 1-14. Recently united with the genus Canomaculina (Elix, J. A. 1997. The lichen genera Canomaculina and Rimeliella (Ascomycotina, Parmeliaceae). Mycotaxon 65: 475-479). internet key.
• Rinodina
• Roccella - Coastal, never far from the sea, on rock or epiphytic.
• Roccellina - Coastal, never far from the sea, on rock or epiphytic. Litt.: Tehler, A. 1983 - The genera Dirina and Roccellina (Roccellaceae). Opera Bot. 70.
• Sagenidiopsis - One species, widespread in lowland and lower montane forests, S. undulatum (Fée) Egea, Tehler, Torrente & Sipman. Litt.: Egea, J. M., Tehler, H., Torrente, P. & Sipman, H. 1995 - Tania, a new genus with byssoid thallus in the order Arthoniales and new data on Sagenidiopsis. Lichenologist 27(5): 351-359.
• Sarcographa - Widespread forest epiphyte. Picture.
• Sarcographina -  Occurrence in the Neotropics uncertain. Included by Staiger (2002) in Gymnographa, see note under Graphis. Picture.
• Schadonia - Rare species of alpine habitats
• Schaereria - On rock above 3000 m. Key to all species worldwide: Kantvilas, G. 1999. A new species of Schaereria from Tasmania. Lichenologist 31(3): 231-238.
• Schistophoron -2 species, widespread forest epiphytes. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Flora Neotr. Monogr. 69.
• Sclerophora - 1 species, C. sanguinea (Tibell) Tibell, epiphytic in mountains. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Flora Neotr. Monogr. 69.
• Sclerophyton - Monograph: Sparrius, L.B. 2004, A monograph of Enterographa and Sclerophyton. - Biblioth. Lichenol. 89: 1-141. Widespread species Sclerophyton seriale (Ach.) Sparrius, mainly in lowland forest. Picture.
• Sclerophytonomyces - One species, Sclerophytonomyces circumscriptum (Tayl.) Sparrius & P. James, known from the Caribbean, on rock. Litt.: Sparrius, L.B. 2004, A monograph of Enterographa and Sclerophyton. - Biblioth. Lichenol. 89: 1-141; with former genus concept: J.M. Egea & P. Torrente 1995. The lichen genus Sclerophyton in the Sonoran Desert. Bryologist 98 (2): 207-217.
• (Sculptolumina - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• (Segestria - Included in Porina)
• Seirophora - Recently separated from Teloschistes by Frödén & Lassen (2004), Lichenologist 36: 289-298. In SA only known from a very disjunct population of Seirophora villosa (Ach.) Frödén on the Pacific coast of Peru.
• Sigridea - 2 corticolous species. Litt.: Tehler 1993, Nova Hedwigia 57: 417-435.
• Siphula - Commoner species: S. fastigata (Nyl.) Nyl.and S. torulosa (Thunb.) Nyl. in high Andes; S. carassensis Müll. Arg. on sandstone rocks in temporary streamlets in lowlands; S. decumbens Nyl. on detritus on soil or tree trunks in mid-elevations. On three neotr. species: Kantvilas, G. 1998: Studies on the lichen genus Siphula in Tasmania II. The S. decumbens group. Herzogia 13: 119-138. On 4 neotropical species: Kantvilas, G. & Elix, J.A. 2002. The taxonomy, chemistry and morphology of some South American species of Siphula. Herzogia 15: 1-12. A survey of all species worldwide with distribution and chemistry: Kantvilas, G. 2002. Studies on the lichen genus Siphula Fr. Biblioth. Lichenol. 82: 37-53.
• Solenographa - synonym of Diorygma.
• Solorina - Perhaps 3 species, one in Mexico, 1-2 in the high Andes, on soil on calcareous places above 2000 m.
• (Sphaerophorus - Neotropical species included in Bunodophoron)
• Sphinctrina -2 species. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Sporopodium - Common foliicolous genus, mainly in forest undergrowth.
• Sporostigma - Monotypic genus, on dead, persistent leaf bases of Sabal palmetto. So far known only from Florida, but perhaps of wider distribution in the Neotropics. Litt.: M. Grube 2001. Sporostigma, a new calicioid genus in Arthoniales. Lichenologist 33 (5): 387-391.
•   Squamacidia - Single species: S. janeirensis (Müll. Arg.) Brako, incl. var. endococcinea (Zahlbr.) Brako & var. janeirensis, in lowland forest. Litt.: Brako, L. 1989: Reevaluation of the genus Phyllopsora with taxonomic notes and introduction of Squamacidia, gen. nov. Mycotaxon 35: 1-19. Syn. of Triclinum acc. to Jørgensen (2003), Conspectus, Ilicifolia 4: 1-78
• Staurolemma - One species, S. dussii (Vain.) P. M. Jørg. & Henssen, known from the West Indies (Guadeloupe and Martinique) and Hawaii. (Other collemataceous genera with simple spores may occur in the Neotropics!) Litt.: Jørgensen, P. M. & Henssen, A. 1999. Further species of the lichen genus Staurolemma (Collemataceae, Lichenized Ascomycetes). Bryologist 102(1): 22-25. NOTE: with key to genera of Collemataceae with simple spores.
• Staurothele - On rock.
• Stereocaulon - On rock or soil, mostly above 2000 m, often on road banks. Litt.: Boekhout, T. 1982: Studies on colombian cryptogams XVIII. The genus Stereocaulon (Schreber) Hoffmann (Lichenes). J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 53: 438-511. Lamb, I. M. 1977: A conspectus of the lichen genus Stereocaulon (Schreb.) Hoffm. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 43: 191-355. Lamb, I. M. 1978: Keys to the species of the lichen genus Stereocaulon (Schreb.) Hoffm. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 44: 209-250. Key to neotropical taxa.
• Sticta - Common and widespread on mossy places. Picture of Sticta limbata: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Slimbata.html. Other picture.
• (Stigmatochroma - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Stirtonia - Foliicolous in lowland forest. Litt.: Makhija, U. & Patwardhan, P.G. 1998: The lichen genus Stirtonia (family Arthoniaceae). Mycotaxon 62: 287-311.
• Strigula - Widespread on various substrates, mainly in the lowlands.
• Sulcopyrenula - A recently described genus of Pyrenulaceae with 2 species in the Neotropics. Litt.: Harada, H. 1999: Sulcopyrenula, a new pyrenocarpous lichen genus (Pyrenulaceae, Lichenized Ascomycota). Lichenologist 31(6): 567-573.
• Synalissa - On granitic rock in the lowlands. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Syncesia - 13 species, on old treetrunks in forest or in arid maritime areas. Key: Tehler, A. 1997: Flora Neotropica Monograph 74
• Tapellaria - On leaves, widespread.
• "Tapellariopsis" - On leaves. Litt.: Lücking, R. 1992: Foliicolous lichens - A contribution to the knowledge of the lichen flora of Costa Rica, Central America. - Beih. Nova Hedwigia 104: 1-179.
• Teloschistes - Widespread, usually epiphytic on open places. Litt.: Hillmann, J. 1930. Studien über die Flechtengattung Teloschistes Norm. Hedwigia 69: 303-343. Picture of Teloschistes flavicans: http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/cpsu/pictures/15.htm.
• Tephromela - Kalb (Biblioth. Lichenol. 88: 319-322, 2004) described several species.
• (Tetramelas - See Buellia, Marbach 2000)
• Thalloloma- see note under Graphis.
• "Thallotrema" (Unpublished name for common sterile taxon on trunks in lowland forest, of uncertain affinities)
• Thamnolia - Terricolous above c. 3500 m; commonest species T. vermicularis (Swartz) Schaerer. Picture of Thamnolia vermicularis: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Tvermicularis.html.
• Thecaria - see note under Graphis.
• Thelenella - On various, organic substrates, widespread but usually inconspicuous. Litt.: Mayrhofer, H. 1987: Monographie der Flechtengattung Thelenella. Biblioth. Lichenol. 26. The genus Aspidothelium is included here by some authors.
• Thelidium - On rock.
• Thelotrema (incl. Leptotrema pr.p., Phaeotrema pr.p.) - This genus name has been used in various senses. While early authors (e.g. Vainio) use it for most Thelotremataceae, Zahlbruckner a.o. uses it for Thelotremataceae with colourless, muriform spores. Hale (1981) restricted it to species with excipulum proprium separated from the thalline excipulum (e.g. T. lepadinum), and afterwards Chroodiscus was separated from it. Litt.: Hale, M. E. 1978 - A revision of the lichen family Thelotremataceae in Panama. Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 38: 1-60, f. 1-15. A recent segregate is Reimnitzia, with single species R. santense (Kalb, Mycotaxon 79: 325, 2001). Pictures.
• Thyrea - On granitic rock in the lowlands. Litt.: Schultz et al. 2000, ... Orinoco and in Guyana, Plant biol. 2: 482-495.
• Tomasellia - Epiphytic.
• Toninia (s.l.) - On soil in mountains. Litt.: Timdal, E. 1991: A monograph of the genus Toninia (Lecideaceae, Ascomycetes). Opera Bot. 110, 137 pp.
• Tornabea - Single species of coastal Pacific in Peru, Chile: Tornabea scutellifera (With.) Laund. Litt.: Nimis & Tretiach 1997, Bryologist 100: 217-225.
• Trapelia - On soil or low rocks, often road banks, in humid mountain areas.
• Trapeliopsis - Squamulose species T. glaucolepida (Nyl.) G. Schneider, and crustose species, among moss on soil or tree stumps, mainly above c. 3000 m in humid mountains.
• Tricharia - Widespread on leaves. Picture.
• Trichothelium - (not sensu Harris 1995) Widespread, mainly on leaves. Litt.: Lücking, R. 1998. Additions and corrections to the knowledge of the foliicolous lichen flora of Costa Rica. The genus Trichothelium (lichenized ascomycetes: Trichotheliaceae). Nova Hedwigia 66: 375-417 (with worldwide key). Revised key to all foliicolous species: Lücking, Biblioth. Lichenol. 88: 409-426, 2004. Picture.
• Triclinum - See Squamacidia)
• Trypethelium - Widespread epiphyte, mainly in lowlands on open places. Litt.: Harris, R. C. 1986("1984") - The family Trypetheliaceae (Loculoascomycetes: lichenized Melanommatales) in Amazonian Brazil. Suppl. Acta Amazonica 14(1-2): 55-80.
• (Tuckneraria - See Cetraria)
• Tylophorella - 1 species, T. pyrenocarpoides (Müll. Arg.) Egea, from Colombia + Venezuela. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Fl. Neotr. 69.
• Tylophoron - 3 species, widespread, usually on tree trunks. Litt.: Tibell 1996, Flora Neotr. Monogr. 69.
• Umbilicaria - On rock above c. 3000 m. Litt.: Sipman, H. J. M. 1992 - The genus Umbilicaria (lichenized ascomycetes) in Colombia. Nova Hedwigia 54(1-2): 63-75. Marcano, V. & Morales Méndez, A. 1994. Revision del genero Umbilicaria (Ascomycetes liquenizados) en Venezuela. Ernstia 4(1-2): 21-35. Llano, G. A. 1950. A monograph of the lichen family Umbilicariaceae in the western hemisphere. Washington, 281 pp. Picture of Umbilicaria: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Uamericana.html.
• Usnea (incl. Neuropogon, with black rings and tips, on high altitude rocks) - Widespread, epiphytic of on rocks, preferably on foggy places. Litt.: Walker, F. J. 1985 - The lichen genus Usnea subgenus Neuropogon. Bull. Brit. mus. (Nat. Hist.), Bot. 13(1), 130 pp. Picture of Usnea: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Ufillipendula.html.
• Vainionora - Lowland epiphytes. Litt.: Kalb, K. 1991. Lichenes Neotropici, Fascikel XII (No. 476-525). 16 pp.
• Verrucaria - Probably widespread, on rock.
• Vezdaea - Known from leaves, but probably more widespread.
• (Woessia - Syn. of Bacidina)
• Xanthomendoza - Epiphytic or on rock, one species, X. mendozae (Räs.) Kondratyuk & Kärnef., in the dry parts of the southern Andes, above 3500 m. Litt.: Kondratyuk & Kärnefelt 1997, Bibliotheca Lichenologica 68: 19-44.
• Xanthoparmelia - On rock, rarely on wood, mostly in arid regions. Litt.: Nash III, T. H., C. Gries & J. A. Elix. 1995 - A revision of the lichen genus Xanthoparmelia in South America. Biblioth. Lichenol. 56. 158 pages. Picture of Xanthoparmelia: http://www.lichen.com/bigpix/Xchlorochroa.html.
• Xanthopsorella - On rock at medium elevations in Mexico; single species: X. texana (W. A. Weber) Kalb & Hafellner. Litt.: G. Schneider, 1979, Bibliotheca Lichenol. 13: 158, as Xanthopsora.
• Xanthoria - Epiphytic or on rock at high elevations. See also the recently segregated genera Josefpoeltia and Xanthomendoza. Litt.: Kondratyuk & Kärnefelt 1997, Bibliotheca Lichenologica 68: 19-44.
• Xylographa - On wood at high elevations.

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